Cancer may affect the people in daily life

We all make lifestyle choices every day and there is overwhelming evidence that the choices we make can make a big difference to our cancer risk.
This awarness program may help you people to know  about the cancer , then how to control it , what are the causes , also, the prevention measures for it and you might gonna to know about the aids and treatment for cancer .
cancer

View through an endoscope of a polyp, a benign precancerous growth projecting from the inner lining of the colon.

Cancer, group of more than 100 distinct diseases characterized by the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body. In the early 21st century some 12 million new cancer cases were diagnosed worldwide each year, and the disease affected one in every three persons born in developed countries. Hence, cancer is a major cause of sickness and death throughout the world.

Though it has been known since antiquity, significant improvements in cancer treatment have been made since the middle of the 20th century, mainly through a combination of timely and accurate diagnosis, selective surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapeutic drugs. 

Let you to know about statistics of cancer patients

Global cancer statistics for 2008 provided by the World Health Organization clearly illustrate that rates of cancer incidence (not mortality) are highest in the most developed, Westernized regions of the world. Australia/New Zealand, North America, Western Europe, and Northern Europe are the global leaders of cancer rates, followed closely by the rest of Europe (see below graph). Statistics of rates of incidence of breast cancer closely mimic these global trends for all cancers

These statistics suggest that a correlation exists between cancer and a lifestyle based on consumption of goods produced by advanced capitalism. While the long historical march of technological innovation has allowed for the mass production of many consumer goods that provide creature comforts and a life of ease for those privileged enough to afford them, there is also a long companion history of negative implications.Widespread pollution of the living environment, toxins in drinking water and food supplies, outbreaks of salmonella and e-coli in agricultural products, human rights abuses at sites of extraction and production, and the occasional horrific disaster (see Chernobyl, Bhopal, recent explosions and collapses of mines in the U.S. and abroad) are well documented and relatively well known. Yet we maintain a dangerous habit of not questioning the origins, methods of production, or contents of the goods we consume.

India cancer statistics

According to india cancer statistics, cancer rates in India are lower than those seen in Western countries. But are rising with increasing migration of rural population to the cities, increase in life expectancy and changes in lifestyles. But based the india cancer statistics, rates for oral and oesophageal cancers are some of the highest in the world. How to slove the problerm of cancer in india? Compared with 2011 cancer statistics, cancer statistics in india need to research deeply with these india cancer statistics.

Cancer has impact on children

Childhood cancers often occur or begin in the stem cells, which are simple cells capable of producing other types of specialized cells that the body needs. A sporadic (occurs by chance) cell change or mutation is usually what causes childhood cancer. In adults, the type of cell that becomes cancerous is usually an "epithelial" cell, which are cells that line the body cavity and cover the body surface. Cancer occurs from environmental exposures to these cells over time. Adult cancers are sometimes referred to as "acquired" for this reason.

Diagnosis, treatment and prognosis for childhood cancers are different than for adult cancers. The main differences are the survival rate and the cause of the cancer. The survival rate for childhood cancer is about 72 percent, while in adult cancers, the survival rate is 60 percent. This difference is thought to be because childhood cancer is more responsive to therapy, a child can tolerate more aggressive therapy and the prognosis is better.

Factors that may cause cancer in our routine lifestyle

Genetics

Environmental factors.

Sun exposure.

Body fatness.

Calcium.

Energy dense food.

Processed meat. 

Red meat.

Salt and salty food.

Tobacco.

Alcohol.

Unsafe sex.

Impact of genetics on cancer 

Genetics can play a big role in cancer development. If you have a family history of cancer, such as breast cancer, taking extra precautions is vital. When cancer is genetic, a mutated gene has been passed down. Genetic tests are available for many hereditary cancers. Keep in mind that if you have a family history of cancer, it does not mean you will develop it. You only have a greater chance of developing it.

Impact of environmental factor on cancer

The environment you are in can cause cancer. Exposure to asbestos, a group of minerals found in housing and industrial building materials can cause a variety of medical problems, such as mesothelioma. Studies have shown that people who are exposed to high amount of benzene are at risk for cancer. Benzene is a chemical found in gasoline, smoking, and pollution.

Exposure to the sun also one of the cause for cancer

Skin cancer is a killer. This is a fact that by the millions of deaths that occur each year, because it is confirmed.

Skin cancer is caused by exposure to the UV rays of the sun. A sunburn, or a tan is actually the result of cell damage caused by the sun. Skin cancer can be prevented in most cases. Wearing sunscreen when outdoors and staying out of the sun between the hours of 10 a.m. and 2 p.m., when the sun's rays are strongest is your best defense.

Body fatness or obese can cause a cancer 

Being overweight is a cause of cancers of the:

Oesophagus cancer 

Pancreatic cancer

Endometrial cancer

Kidney cancer

breast cancer in post

-menopausal women.

Bowel cancer

(colon cancer)

Body fatness or obese can cause a cancer 

Cancer of gallbladder

It is also probably a cause of cancer of the gallbladder.

There is evidence that being overweight actually protects against pre-menopausal breast cancer, but the evidence is convincing that it is a cause of post-menopausal breast cancer, which is by far the most common type of breast cancer. This means that being overweight increases risk of breast cancer overall.

Fat around our waists can be particularly harmful. The evidence is convincing that it is a cause of bowel cancer and it is also probably a cause of post-menopausal breast cancer and cancers of the pancreas and endometrium.

How calcium can cause a cancer

Diets high in calcium probably protect against colorectal cancer, but they are probably a cause of prostate cancer.

Energy-dense food may also cause a cancer

Evidence suggests that energy dense food, or food that has more than about  225-275 calories per 100g, probably contributes to weight gain and obesity. Because of the close link between cancer risk and being overweight and obese, you should limit consumption of energy-dense foods, as well as sugary drinks.

Eating low energy-dense foods such as vegetables probably protects against weight gain and obesity.

Impact of processed meat & red-meat on a cancer

Bowel cancer(colon cancer)

Processed meat is a cause of bowel cancer ie.colon cancer

Processed meat refers to any meat that is preserved by salting, curing, smoking or adding chemical preservatives. This means meat such as ham, bacon and hot dogs, and some sausages.

Red meat, such as beef, lamb and pork, is a cause of bowel cancer.

Causes of cancer due to salt and salty food

Salt and salty foods are probably a cause of stomach cancer.

Causes of cancer due to tobacco

Smoking or using tobacco in any form increases the risk of cancer and other diseases.

Tobacco can cause cancer whether it is smoked or consumed in other ways, and it is particularly harmful when combined with alcohol. Research has shown that passive smoking is also harmful. Tobacco causes 90% of lung cancers and is also linked to cancers of the mouth, pharynx, larynx, oesophagus, pancreas, cervix, kidney, bladder, stomach, bowel and liver.

Mouth cancer

Pharnyx cancer

Laryngeal cancer

Cervical cancer

Cancer in bladder

Liver cancer

Cause of cancer – drinking alcohol

Alcoholic drinks are a cause of cancers of the:

mouth, pharynx and larynx

oesophagus

breast

For bowel cancer, that alcohol increases risk is convincing for men and it also probably increases risk in women.

Alcohol is also probably a cause of liver cancer.

The evidence that all types of alcoholic drinks are a cause of a number of cancers is now stronger than ever.

Unsafe sex may also causes cancer

Vulvar cancer

(leftside)

Vaginal cancer

Practicing unsafe sex can increase your risk of developing a virus called HPV. HPV is a group of over 100 viruses, medically known as human papillioma virus. HPV increases your risk factor for cervical, anal, vulvar and vaginal cancer. Further studies are being conducted in HPV's role in the development of other cancers. There is a test available to see if you have contracted HPV. It involves scraping of cervical cells and then the sample is sent to a lab. The lab test can even identify the strain of the virus, also.

Major types of childhood cancer

Leukemia

Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Acute Myelogenous Leukemia

Brain tumors

Neuroblastoma

Sarcomas

Osteosarcoma

Ewings Sarcoma

Rhabdomyosarcoma

Lymphomas

Hodgkin Disease or Hodgkin's Lymphoma

Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma

Liver Cancers

Cancers of the Kidney

Retinoblastoma

Germ Cell Tumors

Leukaemia

Leukemia is a form of cancer that affects the bone marrow and tissues which produce circulating blood cells, and is the most common of all childhood cancers. The different types of Leukemia that affect children include the following: Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia is the most common childhood cancer. Nearly 75% of children with leukemia have Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia, which is a cancer of the lymphoid cells within the bone marrow and the lymphoid organs of the body; all of which are involved in the body’s immune system.

Acute Myelogenous Leukemia: Acute Myelogenous Leukemia is also known as Acute Nonlymphatic Leukemia, and is a cancer of the myeloid blood cells. Myeloid blood cells are produced in bone marrow and help in fighting off bacterial infections.

Microscopic view of

Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Acute Myelogenous Leukemia

Treatment for leukemia

Treatments for leukemia include:

Chemotherapy, which uses powerful medicines to kill cancer cells. This is the main treatment for most types of leukemia.

Radiation treatments. Radiation therapy uses high-dose X-rays to destroy cancer cells and shrink swollen lymph nodes or an enlarged spleen. It may also be used before a stem cell transplant.

Stem cell transplant. Stem cells can rebuild your supply of normal blood cells and boost your immune system. Before the transplant, radiation or chemotherapy may be given to destroy cells in the bone marrow and make room for the new stem cells. Or it may be given to weaken your immune system so the new stem cells can get established.

Biological therapy. This is the use of special medicines that improve your body's natural defenses against cancer.

Brain tumors

Gliomas are the most common forms of Brain Tumors, although there are many forms of them.

Treatment for brain tumors

Early treatment often improves the chance of a good outcome. Treatment depends on the size and type of tumor and the child's general health.

The following are treatments for specific types of tumors:

Astrocytoma -- The main treatment is surgery to remove the tumor.

Brainstem gliomas -- Surgery is usually not possible because of the tumor's location in the brain. Radiation and chemotherapy are used to shrink the tumor and prolong life.

Ependymomas -- Treatment may include surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy.

Medulloblastomas -- Surgery alone does not cure this type of cancer. Chemotherapy and radiation are often used in combination with surgery.

In cases where the tumor cannot be removed, surgery may help reduce pressure and relieve symptoms.

Radiation therapy and chemotherapy may be used for certain tumors.

Neuroblastoma

Neuroblastoma in infants

Neuroblastomas are a form of cancer of the sympathetic nervous system. This form of cancer usually starts in the adrenal glands which are seated above the kidney.

Treatment for neuroblastoma

Newly diagnosed neuroblastoma treated

We start by determining whether the disease risk is low, intermediate or high.

Low-risk disease. If your child is under a year of age at diagnosis, or has small, easily removed tumors, the child may only need a simple surgical procedure or careful follow-up.

Intermediate-risk disease. If your child has a larger tumor that has not spread, or is a baby with disease that has spread (but does not have the MYCN abnormality mentioned above), we will probably treat the child with surgery and four to eight months of chemotherapy. Often, patients with intermediate-risk disease do not need radiation treatments.

High-risk disease. About half of neuroblastoma patients have high-risk disease, either because the tumor has spread to other parts of the body or because test results show high-risk features, such as MYCN amplification. If your child has high-risk neuroblastoma, treatment includes five months of chemotherapy, surgery, radiation therapy, high dose chemotherapy followed by his or her own stem cell rescue, and immunotherapy combined with biological therapy. These very intense treatments have improved the cure rate of this complex disease and Children's Hospital has led the efforts to develop these modern treatment approaches.

Relapsed or refractory neuroblastoma treated

Unfortunately, high-risk neuroblastoma still has a very high rate of non-responsiveness, or recurring/relapsing during or after treatment.

Sarcomas

Sarcomas are tumors which are cancerous and involve bones and soft tissues.

Osteosarcoma:

Osteomas are Bone Sarcomas, and are the most common type of bone sarcoma. Tumors are many times found growing at the end of long bones of the extremities near the joints.

Ewings Sarcoma:

 A Ewings Sarcoma is a form of bone cancer that many times appears in the middle of a bone. This form of cancer is usually found in the middle of bones in the thighs, upper arms, hip bones, and ribs.

Rhabdomyosarcoma: 

A Rhabdomyosarcoma is a form of soft tissue sarcoma which forms in the muscles. Rhabdomyosarcomas are usually found in the legs, arms, bladder, kidneys, neck or head of a person 

Treatment for sarcomas

The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:

The type of soft tissue sarcoma.

The stage of the cancer (the amount of tumor remaining after surgery to remove it or whether the tumor has spread to other places in the body).

The location, grade, and size of the tumor and how deep under the skin the tumor is.

Whether the patient also has a condition called neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1).

The age of the patient.

Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back).

The prognosis also depends on how the tumor responds to chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy.

Lymphomas

Lymphomas are tumors in the lymph tissues, parts of the human immune system. The different types of Lymphoma include:

Hodgkin Disease or Hodgkin's Lymphoma: Hodgkin's Disease, or, 'Hodgkin's Lymphoma,' is a form of cancer that affects the lymph nodes closer to the body’s surface. These lymph nodes are found in the neck, armpits, and in the groin area.

Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma: A Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma is a form of cancer that affects lymph nodes which are found deep within the body. These Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma are of varying types and include Burkitt's, non-Burkitt's, and lymphoblastic lymphoma.

Treatment for lymphomas

Chemotherapy Chemotherapy utilizes chemicals that interfere with the cell division process - damaging proteins or DNA - so that cancer cells will commit suicide. These treatments target any rapidly dividing cells (not necessarily just cancer cells), but normal cells usually can recover from any chemical-induced damage while cancer cells cannot. Chemotherapy is generally used to treat cancer that has spread or metastasized because the medicines travel throughout the entire body. Treatment occurs in cycles so the body has time to heal between doses. However, there are still common side effects such as hair loss, nausea, fatigue, and vomiting. Combination therapies often include multiple types of chemotherapy or chemotherapy combined with other treatment options. Radiation Radiation treatment, also known as radiotherapy, destroys cancer by focusing high-energy rays on the cancer cells. This causes damage to the molecules that make up the cancer cells and leads them to commit suicide. Radiotherapy utilizes high-energy gamma-rays that are emitted from metals such as radium or high-energy x-rays that are created in a special machine. Radiotherapy can be used as a standalone treatment to shrink a tumor or destroy cancer cells, and it is also used in combination with other cancer treatments. Side effects of radiation therapy may include mild skin changes resembling sunburn or suntan, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and fatigue. Patients also tend to lose their appetites and have trouble maintaining weight, but most side effects subside a few weeks after completing treatment.

Liver Cancers

A tumor, or abnormal growth in the liver, is known as Liver Cancer. There are some common forms of Liver Cancer in children and they include Hepatoblastomas and Hepatocellular Carcinomas.

Treatment for liver cancer

The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:

The stage of the cancer (the size of the tumor, whether it affects part or all of the liver, and whether it has spread to other places in the body, such as the lungs).

Whether the cancer can be removed completely by surgery.

The type of liver cancer.

Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred.

Prognosis may also depend on:

Certain features of the cancer cell (how it looks under a microscope).

Whether the AFP blood levels go down after chemotherapy begins.

Childhood liver cancer may be cured if the tumor is small and can be completely removed by surgery. Complete removal is possible more often for hepatoblastoma than for hepatocellular carcinoma.

Cancers of the Kidney

There are also cancers of the Kidney which affect children, and different forms of them. The forms of Kidney cancer that affect children include Wilms Tumor, or,'Nephroblastoma,' and Clear Cell Sarcoma.

Treatment for kidney cancer

Treatment for kidney cancer depends on the type and stage of the disease. In Wilms' tumor, chemotherapy, radiotherapy and nephrectomy are the accepted treatments. Inrenal cell carcinoma, treatment depends on the stage of the cancer, but typically does not involve chemotherapy and radiotherapy, as renal cell carcinoma is resistant to these therapies.

Treatment for localized renal cell carcinoma consists of nephrectomy alone, with no adjuvant (post surgical) therapy.

In metastatic renal cell carcinoma,treatment consists of Targeted therapy such as torisel, nexavar and sutent, the use of immunotherapy including interferon and interleukin-2, and in some cases, nephrectomy. Other rare forms of kidney cancer, such as sarcomatoid renal carcinoma, are not disscussed here.

Retinoblastoma

Retinoblastoma is a form of malignant cancer that affects the retina in the eye of a child. The retina is a thin membrane in the back of the eye.

Treatment for retinoblastoma

The aim of treatment in retinoblastoma, in order of priority, is to save the life, eye, sight and cosmesis of the child. There are many treatment modalities for this tumor. These are:

Enucleation: This means removal of the eye. The eye with the tumor is removed and is sent for a pathology report. The space is replaced by an artificial implant made of plastic, rubber or coral. The child is fitted with prosthesis or artificial eye, made to match the other eye. This artificial eye, of course, does not have any vision.

External beam radiation: as an alternative to enucleation, this method of giving radiation treatment to the eye may treat the tumor while preserving the eye. As the tumor is very radiosensitive, this treatment method is very effective. Though the radiation may cause damage to the surrounding structures of the eye, e.g., lens (cataract), lacrimal system (dry eye), orbit (bone maldevelopment) etc. It also increases the chance of developing secondary tumor of the bone, especially in children with tumor involving both eyes.

Localized Plaque radiation therapy: This method involves applying radioactive plaque close to the tumor on the sclera, and thus gives the radiation therapy in a localized area. It significantly decreases the local complications associated with radiation therapy.

Photocoagulation: Laser treatment for the tumor is effective and safe for tumors that are smaller in size. In the right cases, this treatment may help in preserving eye as well as the sight of the child.

Cryotherapy: this involves freezing of the tumor by applying a special probe on the external surface of the eye (sclera). This treatment is done under direct observation and is effective in saving the eye and sight in patients with small tumor.

Chemotherapy: Treatment with anticancer drugs. There has been a recent preference towards treatment with systemic drugs as an additional treatment. The chemotherapy may decrease the size of the tumor and thus make it more amenable to local treatment like laser, cryotherapy and plaque radiation.

Germ Cell Tumors

Germ cell tumors usually show up in the testes of boys, the ovaries of girls, and in the bottom of the spine. Germ cell tumors may also appear in the middle of the brain, in the chest, or in the abdomen.

Treatment for germ cell tumors

There are two primary ways to treat germ cell tumors:Surgery to remove the tumor tissue 

Chemotherapy to attack the remaining tumor cells 

Surgery

The location of the tumor may influence the need or possibility for surgery.  When possible, the first choice is to try and remove the entire tumor.  Complete surgical removal can be enough to cure most teratomas and immature teratomas.Surgery alone can also cure some testicular and ovarian malignant germ cell tumors.  For testicular germ cell tumors, successful surgery may make chemotherapy unnecessary.  If the disease has not spread to the lymph nodes, and if the levels of tumor marker proteins decrease to normal after surgery, there may be no need for chemotherapy.

In older boys, a biopsy of lymph nodes in the abdomen may be needed to determine whether the disease has spread.

Chemotherapy

The use of chemotherapy medications has been successful in curing some germ cell tumors.  Standard chemotherapy includes four rounds of treatment known as PEB that includes:

Cisplatin (P)

Etoposide (E)

Bleomycin (B)

The drugs carboplatin and ifosafamide are sometimes also used.

Boys who have had testicular tumors removed completely by surgery may be monitored without chemotherapy.  If tumor marker levels fail to return to normal or rise after surgery during the follow-up period, chemotherapy is then used with good results.  This is sometimes called "salvage chemotherapy" because it can get rid of tumor cells that were not completely removed by surgery.

Patients with other malignant germ cell tumors may also receive four cycles of PEB.  As treatment proceeds, tumor marker levels are monitored.  The purpose is to shrink the tumor as much as possible, after which surgeons will try to remove any tumor tissue that remains.

Major types of cancer in adults

Breast cancer
Lung cancer
Skin cancer
Blood cancer
Oral cancer
Stomach cancer
Uterus cancer
Prostate cancer
Bone cancer
Breast cancer

Breast cancer is a type of cancer originating from breast tissue, most commonly from the inner lining of milk ducts or the lobules that supply the ducts with milk.
Signs and symptoms
The first noticeable symptom of breast cancer is typically a lump that feels different from the rest of the breast tissue. More than 80% of breast cancer cases are discovered when the woman feels a lump. The earliest breast cancers are detected by a mammogram.Lumps found in lymph nodes located in the armpits can also indicate breast cancer.

Causes

The primary risk factors for breast cancer are female sex and older age. Other potential risk factors include: lack of childbearing or breastfeeding,higher hormone levels, diet and obesity.

There is a relationship between diet and breast cancer including an increased risk with a high fat diet, alcohol intake, and obesity. Dietary iodine deficiency may also play a role.

Prevention 

 Maintain a healthy body weight (BMI less than 25) throughout your life.

Minimize or avoid alcohol

Consume as many fruits and vegetables as possible

 Exercise regularly the rest of your life

Consume whole food soy products regularly, such as tofu, tempeh, edamame, roasted soy nuts, soy milk and miso

Minimize exposure to pharmacologic estrogens and xeno-estrogens. 

Take your supplements daily

 Maintain a positive mental outlook

Treatment 

Breast cancer is usually treated with surgery and then possibly with chemotherapy or radiation, or both. A multidisciplinary approach is preferable.Hormone positive cancers are treated with long term hormone blocking therapy.

Surgery

Chest after right breast mastectomy

Surgery involves the physical removal of the tumor, typically along with some of the surrounding tissue and frequently sentinel node biopsy.

Standard surgeries include:

Mastectomy: Removal of the whole breast.

Quadrantectomy: Removal of one quarter of the breast.

Lumpectomy: Removal of a small part of the breast.

Medications 

Drugs used after and in addition to surgery are called adjuvant therapy. Chemotherapy or other types of therapy prior to surgery are called neoadjuvant therapy.

There are currently three main groups of medications used for adjuvant breast cancer treatment: hormone blocking therapy, chemotherapy, and monoclonal antibodies.

Hormone blocking therapy: block the production of estrogen with an aromatase inhibitor

Chemotherapy

Monoclonal antibodies: Aspirin may reduce mortality from breast cancer

Radiation 

Radiotherapy is given after surgery to the region of the tumor bed and regional lymph nodes, to destroy microscopic tumor cells that may have escaped surgery. It may also have a beneficial effect on tumor microenvironment. Radiation therapy can be delivered as external beam radiotherapy or as brachytherapy (internal radiotherapy).

Lung cancer

Lung cancer is a disease characterized by uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of the lung. If left untreated, this growth can spread beyond the lung in a process called metastasis into nearby tissue and, eventually, into other parts of the body

Signs and symptoms

Symptoms and signs that may suggest lung cancer include:[7]

coughing

weight loss

dyspnea (shortness of breath)

chest pain

hemoptysis (coughing up blood)

bone pain

clubbing of the fingernails

fever

fatigue

Superior vena cava obstruction

dysphagia(difficulty swallowing)

wheezing

Causes 

Cancer develops following genetic damage to DNA. This genetic damage affects the normal functions of the cell, including cell proliferation, programmed cell death (apoptosis) and DNA repair. As more damage accumulates, the risk of cancer increases.

Smoking 

Smoking, particularly of cigarettes, is by far the main contributor to lung cancer. Cigarette smoke contains over 60 known carcinogens, including radioisotopes from the radon decay sequence, nitrosamine, and benzopyrene. Additionally, nicotine appears to depress the immune response to malignant growths in exposed tissue

Passive smoking—the inhalation of smoke from another's smoking—is a cause of lung cancer in nonsmokers. A passive smoker can be classified as someone living or working with a smoker.

Radon gas

Radon is a colorless and odorless gas generated by the breakdown of radioactive radium, which in turn is the decay product of uranium, found in the Earth's crust. The radiation decay products ionize genetic material, causing mutations that sometimes turn cancerous. Radon is the second most common cause of lung cancer

Causes 

Asbestos

Asbestos can cause a variety of lung diseases, including lung cancer. There is a synergistic effect between tobacco smoking and asbestos in the formation of lung cancer.Asbestos can also cause cancer of the pleura, called mesothelioma (which is different from lung cancer).

Air pollution

Outdoor air pollution has a small effect on increasing the risk of lung cancer. Fine particulates (PM2.5) and sulfate aerosols, which may be released in traffic exhaust fumes, are associated with slightly increased risk

Genetics

There is a genetic predisposition to lung cancer. In relatives of people with lung cancer, the risk is increased 2.4 times. This may be due to genetic polymorphisms

Prevention 

1) Quit smoking 2) Listen to Mom, and eat those fruits and veggies! 3) Have your home tested for radon. 4) Know what you are being exposed to in the workplace. 5) Avoid secondhand smoke.

Treatment 

Treatment for lung cancer depends on the cancer's specific cell type, how far it has spread, and the patient's performance status. Common treatments includepalliative care, surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.

Lung cancer surgery describes the use of surgical operations in the treatment of lung cancer. It involves the surgical excision of cancer tissue from the lung. It is used mainly in non-small cell lung cancer with the intention of curing the patient.

Types of surgery

Lobectomy (removal of a lobe of the lung)

Segmentectomy (removal of an anatomic division of a particular lobe of the lung)

Pneumonectomy (removal of an entire lung)

Wedge resection

Sleeve/bronchoplastic resection (removal of an associated tubular section of the associated main bronchial passage during lobectomy with subsequent reconstruction of the bronchial passage)

VATS lobectomy (minimally invasive approach to lobectomy that may allow for diminished pain, quicker return to full activity, and diminished hospital costs)

Radiotherapy

Radiotherapy is often given together with chemotherapy, and may be used with curative intent in patients with non-small cell lung carcinoma who are not eligible for surgery. This form of high intensity radiotherapy is called radical radiotherapy.

For small cell lung carcinoma cases that are potentially curable, chest radiotherapy is often recommended in addition to chemotherapy.

For both non-small cell lung carcinoma and small cell lung carcinoma patients, smaller doses of radiation to the chest may be used for symptom control (palliative radiotherapy)

Chemotherapy

The chemotherapy regimen depends on the tumor type

Small cell lung carcinoma In small-cell lung carcinoma, cisplatin and etoposide are most commonly used

Non-small cell lung carcinoma Advanced non-small cell lung carcinoma is often treated with cisplatin or carboplatin, in combination with gemcitabine, paclitaxel, docetaxel, etoposide, or vinorelbine. Recently, pemetrexed has become available.

Adjuvant chemotherapy Adjuvant chemotherapy refers to the use of chemotherapy after apparently curative surgery to improve the outcome.

Palliative care In patients with terminal disease, palliative care or hospice management may be appropriate.[10] These approaches allow additional discussion of treatment options and provide opportunities to arrive at well-considered decisions[90][91] and may avoid unhelpful but expensive care at the end of life

Skin cancer

Skin neoplasms (also known as "skin cancer") are skin growths with differing causes and varying degrees of malignancy. The three most common malignant skin cancers are basal cell cancer, squamous cell cancer, andmelanoma, each of which is named after the type of skin cell from which it arises.

Signs and symptoms

There are a variety of different skin cancer symptoms. These include changes in the skin that do not heal, ulcering in the skin, discolored skin, and changes in existing moles, such as jagged edges to the mole and enlargement of the mole.

Basal cell carcinoma

Basal cell carcinoma usually presents as a raised, smooth, pearly bump on the sun-exposed skin of the head, neck or shoulders. Sometimes small blood vessels can be seen within the tumor. Crusting and bleeding in the center of the tumor frequently develops. It is often mistaken for a sore that does not heal. This form of skin cancer is the least deadly and with proper treatment can be completely eliminated, often without scarring.

Squamous cell carcinoma

Squamous cell carcinoma is commonly a red, scaling, thickened patch on sun-exposed skin. Some are firm hard nodules and dome shaped likekeratoacanthomas. Ulceration and bleeding may occur. When SCC is not treated, it may develop into a large mass. Squamous cell is the second most common skin cancer. It is dangerous, but not nearly as dangerous as a melanoma.

Melanoma

Most melanomas are brown to black looking lesions. Unfortunately, a few melanomas are pink, red or fleshy in color; these are called amelanotic melanomas. These tend to be more aggressive. Warning signs of malignant melanoma include change in the size, shape, color or elevation of a mole. Other signs are the appearance of a new mole during adulthood or new pain, itching, ulceration or bleeding. An often-used mnemonic is "ABCDE", where A= asymmetrical, B= "borders" (irregular= "Coast of Maine sign"), C= "color" (variegated), D= "diameter" (larger than 6 mm—the size of a pencil eraser) and E= "evolving.“

Other

Merkel cell carcinomas are most often rapidly growing, non-tender red, purple or skin colored bumps that are not painful or itchy. They may be mistaken for a cyst or other type of cancer

Causes

Ultraviolet radiation from sun exposure is the primary cause of skin cancer. Other factors that play a role include:

Smoking tobacco

HPV infections increase the risk of squamous cell carcinoma.

Some genetic syndromes including congenital melanocytic nevi syndrome which is characterized by the presence of nevi (birthmarks or moles) of varying size which are either present at birth, or appear within 6 months of birth. Nevi larger than 20 mm (3/4") in size are at higher risk for becoming cancerous.

Chronic non-healing wounds. These are called Marjolin's ulcers based on their appearance, and can develop into squamous cell carcinoma.

Ionizing radiation, environmental carcinogens, artificial UV radiation (e.g. tanning beds), aging, and light skin color.

The use of many immunosuppressive medication increase the risk of skin cancer. Cyclosporin A, a calcineurin inhibitor for example increases the risk approximately 200 times, and azathioprine about 60 times.

Prevention 

Nonmelanoma Skin Cancer (Basal Cell Carcinoma and Squamous Cell Carcinoma)

Studies have suggested that reducing exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation decreases the incidence of nonmelanoma skin cancer. Ultraviolet radiation is a stream of invisible high-energy rays coming from the sun. Artificial sources such as tanning booths and sunlamps also produce ultraviolet radiation.Sun exposure can be reduced by changing patterns of outdoor activities to reduce time of exposure to high-intensity UV radiation (the sun is strongest from 11 am to 3 pm), wearing protective clothing (such as long sleeves and hats) when exposed to sunlight, and by using adequate amounts of sufficiently protective sunscreen.

Whether sunscreens are effective in protecting against nonmelanoma skin cancer has not been determined.

People whose skin tans poorly or burns easily after sun exposure are particularly susceptible to nonmelanoma skin cancer. These people in particular may benefit by following prevention methods for nonmelanoma skin cancer.

Melanoma

Studies have suggested that avoiding sunburns, especially in childhood and adolescence, may reduce the incidence of melanoma skin cancer.Sunburn can be avoided by changing patterns of outdoor activities to reduce time of exposure to high-intensity UV radiation (the sun is strongest from 11 am to 3 pm), wearing protective clothing (such as long sleeves and hats) when exposed to sunlight, and using sunscreen.

Sunscreen is not a substitute for avoidance of sun exposure.

People whose skin tans poorly or who have a large number of abnormal moles may have an increased risk of developing melanoma skin cancer. These people in particular may benefit by following prevention methods for melanoma.

Treatment

Most skin cancers are treated with surgery. Occasionally radiotherapy or chemotherapy, or 2 or all 3 of these treatments, are used. But the basic approach is, in most cases, to cut out the cancer tissue, leaving healthy tissue behind.

Surgery

Sometimes, if the cancer is small and the surrounding tissue is healthy, the whole cancer can be removed when the doctor does a biopsy. Or minor surgery, with a local anaesthetic and a couple of stitches in the wound afterwards, may be enough.

If a skin cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes, some of them may have to be removed too

Treatment 

Mohs technique. Mohs technique (microscopically controlled surgery) is a highly specialised type of surgery. The cancer is removed little by little and checked under the microscope immediately. Mohs technique can be used to treat large skin cancers that have penetrated into the skin, cancers that have come back and ones in areas that are difficult to treat such as near the eye.

Cryotherapy Liquid nitrogen is sprayed over sunspots and early-stage BCCs to freeze and kill the skin. The treated area will be sore for a few days. After a while the dead tissue will fall off. Healing can take up to a few weeks and a white scar may form in the area.

Cryotherapy Liquid nitrogen is sprayed over sunspots and early-stage BCCs to freeze and kill the skin. The treated area will be sore for a few days. After a while the dead tissue will fall off. Healing can take up to a few weeks and a white scar may form in the area.

Curettage with cautery This treatment is mainly used for superficial BCCs. The doctor applies a local anaesthetic and the cancer is scooped out with a small spoon-shaped instrument called a curette. Electric current is applied to stop bleeding and destroy any remaining cancer. The wound should heal within a few weeks, leaving a pale scar.

Imiquimod Imiquimod is a cream that destroys skin cancer by stimulating the body’s immune system to fight the cancer. The cream is applied 5–7 times a week for up to 6 weeks, Sometimes the treated skin becomes red, sore and may scab or flake.

Photodynamic therapy Photodynamic therapy (PDT) uses a light source and a special cream to destroy cancer cells. A light-sensitive cream is applied to the skin and a few hours later a light is shone on the area. The treated area must be covered and sometimes the treatment needs to be repeated. Some people require a local anaesthetic before the PDT to help ease pain. After PDT the skin usually heals quickly and without scarring.

Radiotherapy In radiotherapy (or radiation therapy) high energy X-rays are fired at the cancer. They may kill it completely, or at least shrink it.

Radiotherapy may be used for BCCs and squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) that are hard to treat with surgery because of where they are (close to an eye, for instance), and for melanoma that has spread to other parts of the body. Radiotherapy may have side effects, including feeling sick or tired, and a sore mouth or itchy skin. It doesn't make a person radioactive.

Chemotherapy

      Chemotherapy is treatment with drugs, either pills or injections. It’s not used much for skin cancer, but it may be used for melanoma that has spread to other parts of the body.

Topical chemotherapy is sometimes used to treat solar keratoses (sun spots). In this treatment, a cream containing the drug fluorouracil (or ‘5FU’) is rubbed on the skin every day for a few weeks.

Blood cancer

Blood cancers affect the production and function of your blood cells. Most of these cancers start in your bone marrow where blood is produced. Stem cells in your bone marrow mature and develop into three types of blood cells: red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. In most blood cancers, the normal blood cell development process is interrupted by uncontrolled growth of an abnormal type of blood cell. These abnormal blood cells, or cancerous cells, prevent your blood from performing many of its functions, like fighting off infections or preventing serious bleeding.

There are three main types of blood cancers:

Leukemia, a type of cancer found in your blood and bone marrow, is caused by the rapid production of abnormal white blood cells. The high number of abnormal white blood cells are not able to fight infection, and they impair the ability of the bone marrow to produce red blood cells and platelets.

Lymphoma is a type of blood cancer that affects the lymphatic system, which removes excess fluids from your body and produces immune cells. Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that fight infection. Abnormal lymphocytes become lymphoma cells, which multiply and collect in your lymph nodes and other tissues. Over time, these cancerous cells impair your immune system.

Myeloma is a type of blood cancer that specifically targets your plasma cells. Plasma cells are white blood cells that produce disease- and infection-fighting antibodies in your body. Myeloma cells prevent the normal production of antibodies, leaving your body’s immune system weakened and susceptible to infection.

Causes  

A weakened immune system - this may be a result of drugs that suppress the immune system (such as those used for organ transplants), high doses of radiation (such as in radiotherapy for another cancer), or diseases that affect the immune system (such as HIV).

Contact with a chemical called benzene, one of the chemicals in petrol and a solvent used in the rubber and plastics industry.

Genetic disorders like Fanconi anemia, Schwach-Diamond syndrome and Down syndrome.

Symptoms and signs

The symptoms of blood cancer or leukemia are never the same and keep changing with advancement of the disease. Sometimes, the afflicted individual may not experience symptoms in the early stages. But with advancement of blood cancer, the afflicted individual may experience some or all symptoms. Symptoms of leukemia include the following.General ill feeling.

Weakness, paleness, chronic fatigue.

Fever and flu-like symptoms

Frequent injuries and prolonged bleeding.

Sudden drastic weight loss.

Abdominal pain.

Frequent bacterial or viral infections.

Frequent headaches.

Enlarged nymph nodes.

Pain in bones and joints.

Night sweats.

Blood in urine or stools.

Bleeding from gums and nose.

Prevention 

As such there aren’t any preventable measures to restrict onset of blood cancer. However, these are normal measures that can help to minimize risk and contribute to a healthy life.Exercise regularly.

Follow a disciplined, healthy lifestyle.

Keep away from herbicides and insecticides.

Avoid exposure to radiation.

Eat healthy food and drink plenty of water.

Avoid self-medication and seek medical attention for any health related issues.

Discuss even vague symptoms related to blood cancer, if experienced.

Treatment of Blood Cancer Chemotherapy is destroy the abnormal cancer cells. If the leukaemia returns (relapses), intensive treatment may be given. This involves a bone marrow or a stem cell transplant.Stem cell transplant involves transplanting stem cells (the most basic type of cell, from which all types of blood cells develop), rather than bone marrow cells. Stem cells can be harvested (collected) from a leukaemia patient's own blood or from a donor. Bone marrow or stem cell transplants allow much higher doses of chemotherapy to be given. Before transplantation, very high doses of chemotherapy and sometimes radiotherapy are given to destroy all the bone marrow, both abnormal and normal.

Oral cancer

Oral cancer is a subtype of head and neck cancer, is any cancerous tissue growth located in the oral cavity. It may arise as a primary lesion originating in any of the oral tissues, by metastasis from a distant site of origin, or by extension from a neighboring anatomic structure, such as the nasal cavity.

Signs and symptoms

Skin lesion, lump, or ulcer that do not resolve in 14 days located:

On the tongue, lip, or other mouth areas

Usually small

Most often pale colored, be dark or discolored

Early sign may be a white patch (leukoplakia) or a red patch (erythroplakia) on the soft tissues of the mouth

Usually painless initially

May develop a burning sensation or pain when the tumor is advanced

Behind the wisdom tooth

Even behind the ear

Additional symptoms that may be associated with this disease:

Tongue problems

Swallowing difficulty

Mouth sores

Pain and paraesthesia are late symptoms

Causes 

Oncogenes are activated as a result of mutation of the DNA. The exact cause is often unknown. Regardless of the cause, treatment is the same: surgery,radiation with or without chemotherapy. Risk factors that predispose a person to oral cancer have been identified in epidemiological (epidemiology) studies. India being member of International Cancer Genome Consortium is leading efforts to map oral cancer's complete genome.

Tobacco 

Smoking and other tobacco use are associated with about 75 percent of oral cancer cases, caused by irritation of the mucous membranes of the mouth from smoke and heat of cigarettes, cigars, and pipes.

Use of chewing tobacco or snuff causes irritation from direct contact with the mucous membranes.

Alcohol Use of alcohol and other toxic liquids is another high-risk activity associated with oral cancer. There is known to be a very strong synergistic effect on oral cancer risk when a person is both a heavy smoker and drinker. The risk is greatly increased compared to a heavy smoker, or a heavy drinker alone.

Human papillomavirus Infection with human papillomavirus (HPV), particularly type 16 (there are over 120 types), is a known risk factor and independent causative factor for oral cancer. (Gilsion et al. Johns Hopkins) A fast growing segment of those diagnosed does not present with the historic stereotypical demographics. Historically that has been people over 50, blacks over whites 2 to 1, males over females 3 to 1, and 75% of the time people who have used tobacco products or are heavy users of alcohol.

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

Patients after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) are at a higher risk for oral squamous cell carcinoma. Post-HSCT oral cancer may have more aggressive behavior with poorer prognosis, when compared to oral cancer in non-HSCT patients. This effect is supposed to be owing to the continuous lifelong immune suppression and chronic oral graft-versus-host disease.

Prevention 

 Always brush and floss your teeth regularly.

 Do not smoke (or chew) any type of tobacco product.

 Drink alcohol in moderation. 

 Choose cancer-fighting foods in your diet.

See your dentist or dental hygienist regularly.

Stop using tobacco or don't start.

Avoid  excessive sun exposure to your lips.

Treatment Oral cancer treatment may include surgery, radiation therapy, or chemotherapy. Some patients have a combination of treatments.

At any stage of disease, people with oral cancer may have treatment to control pain and other symptoms, to relieve the side effects of therapy, and to ease emotional and practical problems. This kind of treatment is called supportive care, symptom management, or palliative care. 

Surgery to remove the tumor in the mouth or throat is a common treatment for oral cancer. Sometimes the surgeon also removes lymph nodes in the neck. Other tissues in the mouth and neck may be removed as well. Patients may have surgery alone or in combination with radiation therapy.

Radiation therapy (also called radiotherapy) is a type of local therapy. It affects cells only in the treated area. Radiation therapy is used alone for small tumors or for patients who cannot have surgery. It may be used before surgery to kill cancer cells and shrink the tumor. It also may be used after surgery to destroy cancer cells that may remain in the area.

External radiation: The radiation comes from a machine. Patients go to the hospital or clinic once or twice a day, generally 5 days a week for several weeks.

Internal radiation (implant radiation): The radiation comes from radioactive material placed in seeds, needles, or thin plastic tubes put directly in the tissue. The patient stays in the hospital. The implants remain in place for several days. Usually they are removed before the patient goes home.

Chemotherapy uses anticancer drugs to kill cancer cells. It is called systemic therapy because it enters the bloodstream and can affect cancer cells throughout the body.

Chemotherapy is usually given by injection. It may be given in an outpatient part of the hospital, at the doctor's office, or at home. Rarely, a hospital stay may be needed.

Stomach cancer

Stomach cancer, or gastric cancer, refers to cancer arising from any part of the stomach. Stomach cancer causes about 800,000 deaths worldwide per year.

Signs and symptoms

Stomach cancer is often either asymptomatic or it may cause only nonspecific symptoms.

Stage 1 (Early)

Indigestion or a burning sensation (heartburn)

Loss of appetite, especially for meat

Abdominal discomfort or irritation

Stage 2 (Middle)

Weakness and fatigue

Bloating of the stomach, usually after meals

Stage 3 (Late)

Abdominal pain in the upper abdomen

Nausea and occasional vomiting

Diarrhea or constipation

Weight loss

Bleeding (vomiting blood or having blood in the stool) which will appear as black. This can lead to anemia.

Dysphagia; this feature suggests a tumor in the cardia or extension of the gastric tumor in to the esophagus.

Causes

Helicobacter pylori infection: H. pylori is a bacterium that commonly infects the inner lining (the mucosa) of the stomach. Infection with H. pylori can cause stomach inflammation and peptic ulcers. It also increases the risk of stomach cancer, but only a small number of infected people develop stomach cancer.

Long-term inflammation of the stomach: People who have conditions associated with long-term stomach inflammation (such as the blood disease pernicious anemia) are at increased risk of stomach cancer. Also, people who have had part of their stomach removed may have long-term stomach inflammation and increased risk of stomach cancer many years after their surgery.

Smoking: Smokers are more likely than nonsmokers to develop stomach cancer. Heavy smokers are most at risk.

Family history: Close relatives (parents, brothers, sisters, or children) of a person with a history of stomach cancer are somewhat more likely to develop the disease themselves. If many close relatives have a history of stomach cancer, the risk is even greater.

Poor diet, lack of physical activity, or obesity:

Studies suggest that people who eat a diet high in foods that are smoked, salted, or pickled have an increased risk for stomach cancer. On the other hand, people who eat a diet high in fresh fruits and vegetables may have a lower risk of this disease.

A lack of physical activity may increase the risk of stomach cancer.

Also, people who are obese may have an increased risk of cancer developing in the upper part of the stomach.

Most people who have known risk factors do not develop stomach cancer. For example, many people have an H. pylori infection but never develop cancer.

On the other hand, people who do develop the disease sometimes have no known risk factors.

Prevention 

Eat more fruits and vegetables.

Reduce the amount of salty and smoked foods you eat

Stop smoking

Ask your doctor about your risk of stomach cancer

Treatment  As with any cancer, treatment is adapted to fit each person's individual needs and depends on the size, location, and extent of the tumor, the stage of the disease, and general health. Cancer of the stomach is difficult to cure unless it is found in an early stage (before it has begun to spread). 

Surgery is the most common treatment. The surgeon removes part or all of the stomach, as well as the surrounding lymph nodes, with the basic goal of removing all cancer and a margin of normal tissue. Depending on the extent of invasion and the location of the tumor, surgery may also include removal of part of the intestine or pancreas. Tumors in the lower part of the stomach may call for a Billroth I or Billroth II procedure.

Chemotherapy

The use of chemotherapy to treat stomach cancer has no firmly established standard of care. Unfortunately, stomach cancer has not been particularly sensitive to these drugs, and chemotherapy, if used, has usually served to palliatively reduce the size of the tumor, relieve symptoms of the disease and increase survival time. Some drugs used in stomach cancer treatment have included: 5-FU (fluorouracil) or its analog capecitabine, BCNU (carmustine), methyl-CCNU (Semustine), and doxorubicin (Adriamycin), as well as Mitomycin C, and more recently cisplatin and taxotere, often using drugs in various combinations. The relative benefits of these different drugs, alone and in combination, are unclear.

Radiation therapy (also called radiotherapy) is the use of high-energy rays to damage cancer cells and stop them from growing. When used, it is generally in combination with surgery and chemotherapy, or used only with chemotherapy in cases where the individual is unable to undergo surgery. Radiation therapy may be used to relieve pain or blockage by shrinking the tumor for palliation of incurable disease.

Multimodality therapy

While previous studies of multimodality therapy (combinations of surgery, chemotherapy and radiation therapy) gave mixed results, the Intergroup 0116 (SWOG 9008) study showed a survival benefit to the combination of chemotherapy and radiation therapy in patients with nonmetastatic, completely resected gastric cancer. Patients were randomized after surgery to the standard group of observation alone, or the study arm of combination chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Those in the study arm receiving chemotherapy and radiation therapy survived on average 36 months; compared to 27 months with observation.

Uterus cancer

The term uterine cancer may refer to any of several different types of cancer which occur in the uterus, namely:

Uterine sarcomas: sarcomas of the myometrium, or muscular layer of the uterus, are most commonly leiomyosarcomas.

Endometrial cancer:Endometrial carcinomas originate from cells in the glands of the endometrium.

Cervical cancer arises from the transformation zone of the cervix, the lower portion of the uterus and connects to the upper aspect of the vagina.

Gestational trophoblastic disease relates to neoplastic processes originating from tissue of a pregnancy that often is located in the uterus.

Signs and symptoms 

Endometrial cancer in its early stages has one predominant symptom: abnormal uterine bleeding. Bleeding is abnormal in a premenopausal woman if it occurs at unusual times. In a postmenopausal woman, any uterine bleeding is abnormal. One-third of postmenopausal women who see their doctor about abnormal uterine bleeding have endometrial cancer.

A swollen or bloated abdomen, increased girth.  Some women notice that their pants or skirts are getting tight around the waist. The bloating is a sign that fluid, called ascites, is building up in the abdominal cavity in later stage disease

Persistent pressure or pain in the abdomen or pelvis 

Difficulty eating or feeling full quickly

Urinary concerns, such as urgency or frequency

Change in bowel habits with new onset constipation and/or diarrhea

Unexplained vaginal bleeding

Causes 

Abnormal overgrowth of the endometrium (endometrial hyperplasia): An abnormal increase in the number of cells in the lining of the uterus is a risk factor for uterine cancer. Hyperplasia is not cancer, but sometimes it develops into cancer. Common symptoms of this condition are heavy menstrual periods, bleeding between periods, and bleeding after menopause. Hyperplasia is most common after age 40. To prevent endometrial hyperplasia from developing into cancer, the doctor may recommend surgery to remove the uterus (hysterectomy) or hormone therapy with progesterone and regular follow-up exams.

Obesity: Women who are obese have a greater chance of developing uterine cancer.

Reproductive and menstrual history: Women are at increased risk of uterine cancer if at least one of the following apply:

Have never had children

Had their first menstrual period before age 12

Went through menopause after age 55

History of taking estrogen alone: The risk of uterine cancer is higher among women who used estrogen alone (without progesterone) for menopausal hormone therapy for many years.

History of taking tamoxifen: Women who took the drug tamoxifen to prevent or treat breast cancer are at increased risk of uterine cancer.

Causes 

History of having radiation therapy to the pelvis: Women who had radiation therapy to the pelvis are at increased risk of uterine cancer.

Family health history: Women with a mother, sister, or daughter with uterine cancer are at increased risk of developing the disease. Also, women in families that have an inherited form of colorectal cancer(known as Lynch syndrome) are at increased risk of uterine cancer.

Many women who get uterine cancer have none of these risk factors, and many women who have known risk factors don't develop the disease.

Prevention  

There is no known way to prevent uterine cancer. But these things may reduce your chance of getting uterine cancer—

Using birth control pills.

Maintaining a healthy weight and being physically active.

Taking progesterone, if you are taking estrogen.

Treatment 

Surgery : removal of uterus

Radiotherapy treats cancer by using radiation to destroy cancer cells. The radiation can be targeted to cancer sites in your body. Treatment is carefully planned to do as little harm as possible to your normal body tissues.

Brachytherapy (internal radiotherapy)Internal radiotherapy is also called brachytherapy. It is a type of radiotherapy where an implant containing radiation is inserted through the vagina and placed close to the cancer.

Treatment 

Hormone treatment

Some cancers of the uterus depend on hormones for growth. Women's ovaries are removed during surgery for two reasons:

because the cancer may have spread to the ovaries

because they produce oestrogen, which may help the cancer to grow.

Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer using anti-cancer drugs. The aim is to destroy cancer cells while causing the least possible damage to normal cells. The drugs kill cancer cells by stopping them from multiplying.

Prostate cancer

Prostate cancer is a form of cancer that develops in the prostate, a gland in the male reproductive system. Most prostate cancers are slow growing; however, there are cases of aggressive prostate cancers. The cancer cells may metastasize (spread) from the prostate to other parts of the body, particularly the bones and lymph nodes. 

Signs and symptoms

There are no warning signs or symptoms of early prostate cancer. Once a malignant tumor causes the prostate gland to swell significantly, or once cancer spreads beyond the prostate, the following symptoms may be present:

A frequent need to urinate, especially at night.

Difficulty starting or stopping a stream of urine.

A weak or interrupted urinary stream.

Leaking of urine when laughing or coughing.

Inability to urinate standing up.

A painful or burning  sensation during urination or ejaculation

Blood in urine or semen.

Causes 

On a basic level, prostate cancer is caused by changes in the DNA of a normal prostate cell. DNA makes up our genes, which control how cells behave.

Inherited DNA changes (mutations)

Several mutated (changed) genes have been found that may be linked to a man being more likely to have prostate cancer. One of these is called HPC1 (Hereditary Prostate Cancer Gene 1). But there are many other gene changes that may account for some cases of hereditary prostate cancer. None of these is a major cause, and more research on these genes is being done.

Age: Prostate cancer is very rare in men younger than 40. The chance of getting prostate cancer goes up quickly after a man reaches age 50. Almost 2 out of every 3 prostate cancers are found in men over the age of 65.

Genes: Scientists have found some inherited genes that seem to raise prostate cancer risk, but they probably account for only a small number of cases overall. Genetic testing for most of these genes is not yet available, and more study is needed in this area.

Diet: The exact role of diet in prostate cancer is not clear, but some factors have been studied. Men who eat a lot of red meat or high-fat dairy products seem to have a greater chance of getting prostate cancer. These men also tend to eat fewer fruits and vegetables. Doctors are not sure which of these factors causes the risk to go up.

Some studies have found that men who consume a lot of calcium or dairy foods may have a higher risk of advanced prostate cancer. But most studies have not found this link with the levels of calcium found in the average diet.

Obesity: Most studies have not found that being obese (very overweight) is linked with a higher risk of getting prostate cancer. Some studies have found that obese men may be at greater risk for having more advanced prostate cancer and of dying from prostate cancer, but not all studies have found this.

Smoking: Most studies have not found a link between smoking and the risk of getting prostate cancer. A recent study linked smoking to a possible small increase in the risk of death from prostate cancer, but this is a new finding that will need to be confirmed by other studies.

Infection and inflammation of the prostate: Some studies have suggested that prostatitis (inflammation of the prostate gland) may be linked to an increased risk of prostate cancer, but other studies have not found such a link. Some researchers have also looked at whether sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) might increase the risk of prostate cancer. So far, studies have not agreed, and no clear links have been made.

Prevention 

There's no proven prostate cancer prevention strategy. But you may reduce your risk of prostate cancer by making healthy choices, such as exercising and eating a healthy diet.

Choose a low-fat diet.

Eat more fat from plants than from animals.

Increase the amount of fruits and vegetables you eat each day.

Eat fish.

Reduce the amount of dairy products you eat each day.

Drink green tea

Try adding soy to your diet.

Drink alcohol in moderation, if at all.

Maintain a healthy weight.

Exercise most days of the week .

Treatment 

Active Surveillance: During active surveillance, prostate cancer is carefully monitored for signs of progression. A PSA blood test and digital rectal exam (DRE) are usually administered periodically along with a repeat biopsy of the prostate at one year and then at specific intervals thereafter. If symptoms develop, or if tests indicate the cancer is growing, treatment might be warranted.

Prostatectomy (Surgery): A surgical approach to treating prostate cancer will remove all or part of the prostate. Typically, men with early-stage disease or cancer that’s confined to the prostate will undergo radical prostatectomy—removal of the entire prostate gland, plus some surrounding tissue

Radiation Therapy:Radiation therapy, also called X-ray therapy, uses high levels of radiation to kill prostate cancer cells or keep them from growing and dividing, while minimizing damage to healthy cells.

Hormone Therapy is use of hormones to stop growing cancer cells. Male hormones like testosterone, can help prostate cancer cell to grow. Sometimes an operation to remove the testicles , called an orichiectomy, is done to stop the testicles from making testosterone, the main male hormone. 

Hormone therapy is usually used during advanced stages of cancer when cancer has spread outside the prostateor to the other parts of the body 

Chemotherapy is use of toxic drugs to kill cancer cells. Chemotherapy may be taken by pill or may be injucted into the body by a needleinto a vein or muscle. With chemotherapy,the drug enters the blood stream, travels through the body, and kills rapid growing cancer cells.

Radiation therapy is use of high energy radiation to kill cancer cell and to shrink tumors. Radiation may come from machine outside the body (external radiation therapy) or from putting materials that produce radiation in the area where the cancer cells arefound (internal radiation therapy)

Bone cancer

The majority of cancer involving the bones is metastatic disease from other remote cancers. Primary bone cancer is much rarer.

Signs and symptoms

The most common symptom of bone tumors is pain, which will gradually increase over time. A person may go weeks, months, and sometimes years before seeking help; the pain increases with the growth of the tumor.

Additional symptoms may include fatigue, fever, weight loss, anemia, and or unexplained bone fractures. Many patients will not experience any symptoms, except for a painless mass. Some bone tumors may weaken the structure of the bone, causing pathologic fractures.

Causes 

Specific bone cancer causes have yet to be determined. However, research has identified certain risk factors -- such as a history of Paget's disease or previous treatment with chemotherapy -- that may act together to increase a person's risk of developing it. Scientists do know that bone cancer is not contagious -- you cannot "catch" it from another person.

Specific risk factors for bone cancer include:

 Being a child or young adult

Previous radiation or chemotherapy

History of Paget's disease

Family history of bone cancer

People with hereditary retinoblastoma.

Prevention

The only real way to avoid developing bone cancer is to minimize your exposure to risk factors. However, as there is not much that can be done in the way of avoiding the majority of the risk factors listed, avoiding bone cancer appears to be easier said than done. The only real risk factor about which one would have control is exposure to chemo or radiation therapy, but avoiding necessary anti-cancer treatments out of a fear of developing cancer again in the future is illogical.

Dietary Factors: you can take some dietary steps to minimize your chances of developing cancer. Consume a diet that is rich in whole grains, fruits and vegetables, while minimizing your consumption of saturated and trans fats. While it is impossible to reduce your chances of developing bone cancer through manipulation of specific risk factors for the disease, you can decrease your risk of developing bone cancer by reducing your risk of developing cancer as a whole.

Exercise

Regular exercise can act to reduce your overall risk of developing cancer, so consider adopting a healthier lifestyle to avoid developing bone cancer.

Treatment 

Treatment of bone tumors is highly dependent on the type of tumor.

Chemotherapy and radiotherapy

Chemotherapy and radiotherapy are effective in some tumors (such as Ewing's sarcoma) but less so in others (such as chondrosarcoma).

There are a variety of chemotherapy treatment protocols for bone tumors. The protocol with the best reported survival in children and adults is an intra-arterial protocol where tumor response is tracked by serial arteriogram. When tumor response has reached >90% necrosis surgical intervention is planned.

Medication

One of the major concerns is bone density and bone loss. Non-hormonal bisphosphonates increase bone strength and are available as once-a-week prescription pills. Metastron also known as strontium-89 chloride is an intravenous medication given to help with the pain and can be given in three month intervals. Generic Strontium Chloride Sr-89 Injection UPS, manufactured by Bio-Nucleonics Inc., its the generic version of Metastron. Astra zantec is currently under review as to the benefits in bone cancer.

Surgical treatment

Treatment for some bone cancers may involve surgery, such as limb amputation, or limb sparing surgery (often in combination with chemotherapy andradiation therapy). Limb sparing surgery, or limb salvage surgery, means the limb is spared from amputation. Instead of amputation the affected bone is removed and is done in two ways (a) bone graft, in which a bone from elsewhere from the body is taken or (b) artificial bone is put in. In upper leg surgeries, limb salvage prostheses are available.

The other surgery is called van-ness rotation or rotationplasty which is a form of amputation, in which the patient's foot is turned upwards in a 180 degree turn and the upturned foot is used as a knee.